Pathways linking the built environment and loneliness: A conceptual model based on a scoping review

It is increasingly recognised that the built environment influences the experience of loneliness, but the pathways linking them are not sufficiently understood. Addressing this gap is crucial for developing inclusive policies and guiding the planning and design of built environment interventions aimed at reducing loneliness. This scoping review and conceptual synthesis aimed to advance understanding of these pathways. Scopus and PubMed were searched for peer-reviewed studies examining associations or pathways linking the built environment with loneliness, up to April 2025. Data were systematically charted using a predefined framework covering study characteristics, built-environment factors, loneliness outcomes, and proposed mechanisms, and synthesised to develop a conceptual model. In total, 59 publications were included. Three primary pathways were identified: (1) Behaviour-based pathways, which shape opportunities for social and physical activity; (2) Experience-based pathways, which influence emotional and cognitive responses to the environment; and (3) Exposure-based pathways, which determine levels of exposure to objective, non-built environmental risk or protective factors shaped by the built environment. Several key knowledge gaps and directions for future research were also highlighted. Future research should expand to underrepresented age groups (children, young adults), and regions such as Africa and South America. More evidence is needed on exposure-based pathways and interactions among behavioural, experiential, and exposure mechanisms. Methodologically, more qualitative, longitudinal, and intervention-based studies are needed, alongside advanced analytical models to test mediating mechanisms and complex feedback loops to better capture the full complexity of the interrelated pathways between the built environment and loneliness.